Notes - Superman's Not Coming: Our National Water Emergency and What We the People Can Do About It
By Erin Brockovich
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
We’ve got more than forty thousand: “EPA Releases First Major Update to Chemicals List in 40 Years,” U.S. EPA press release, February 19, 2019.
1. HOW DID WE GET HERE?
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act: History of the Clean Water Act, U.S. EPA.
“Potential cancer-causing chemicals”: James L. Agee, “Protecting America’s Drinking Water: Our Responsibilities Under the Safe Drinking Water Act,” EPA Journal, March 1975.
“We can no longer afford”: Richard Nixon, Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the Union, January 22, 1970.
He set up an Environmental Quality Council: Jack Lewis, “The Birth of the EPA,” EPA Journal, November 1985.
The purpose of the act: “What Is the National Environmental Policy Act,” U.S. EPA, https://www.epa.gov/nepa/what-national-environmental-policy-act.
This led to the creation: EPA Mission Statement, U.S. EPA website.
nonpoint source pollution: “Basic Information about Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution,” U.S. EPA website.
urban runoff: “Nonpoint Source: Urban Areas,” U.S. EPA website.
half a million times: Charles Duhigg, “Clean Water Laws Are Neglected, at a Cost in Suffering,” The New York Times, September 12, 2009.
In Rapanos v. United States: The United States Department of Justice, “Rapanos v. U.S.,” U.S. Department of Justice website.
the Clean Water Rule: “Waters of the United States (WOTUS) Rulemaking,” U.S. EPA website.
However, the rule: Timothy Cama, “Federal Judge Blocks Obama’s Water Rule,” The Hill, August 27, 2015.
the order wasn’t enough: Coral Davenport, “Trump Plans to Begin E.P.A. Rollback with Order on Clean Water,” The New York Times, February 28, 2017.
9 on December 19, 2019: “Current Implementation of ‘Waters of the United States,’ ” U.S. EPA website.
“challenged in court”: “NRDC: Trump Moves to Deny Americans Clean Water,” September 12, 2019, National Resources Defense Council.
the Safe Drinking Water Act: “Summary of the Safe Drinking Water Act,” U.S. EPA website.
The agency sets: “How EPA Regulates Drinking Water Contaminants,” U.S. EPA website.
While the company tried to argue: Technical Report Summary, made available in Palmer v. 3M, https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/4592747-PFAS-in-Tennessee-River-Fish.html.
the compounds were toxic: Sharon Lerner, “3M Knew About the Dangers of PFOA and PFOS Decades Ago, Internal Documents Show,” The Intercept, July 31, 2018.
2016 health advisory: “Toxicological Profile for Perfluoroalkyls,” Draft for Public Comment, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry website, June 2018.
in the womb: “Teflon Chemicals Harmful at Smallest Doses,” Environmental Working Group, August 20, 2015, http://www.ewg.org/research/teflon-chemical-harmful-at-smallest-doses/pfoa-pollution-worldwide-and.
the Lead and Copper Rule: “Lead and Copper Rule,” U.S. EPA website.
Since early 2019, thirteen state and local officials: Curt Guyette, “A Deep Dive into the Source of Flint’s Water Crisis,” Detroit Metro Times, April 19, 2017.
More than 80 percent: Kate Taylor, “Most New York City Schools Had High Lead Levels, Retests Find,” The New York Times, April 28, 2017.
The bill’s author: George Lavender, “Bill Would Force CA Schools to Test Drinking Water for Lead,” KPCC, April 6, 2017.
the average American uses: “Water Questions & Answers,” USGS, http://water.usgs.gov/edu/qa-home-percapita.html.
Some estimates show: Stephen A. Hubbs, “Facts About Chloramine Drinking Water Treatment,” Water Quality & Health Council, February 19, 2016, https://waterandhealth.org/safe-drinking-water/facts-chloramine-drinking-water-treatment.
That’s the estimated number: “Cancer Statistics,” National Cancer Institute, https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/statistics.
15 million U.S. households: “American Housing Survey for the United States: 2007,” U.S Department of Housing and Urban Development, September 2008.
Legionella outbreaks: Lena H. Sun, “Legionnaires’ Outbreaks Cases Nearly Quadrupled in 15 Years,” The Washington Post, June 7, 2016.
2. IT BEGAN IN HINKLEY…AND IT’S EVERYWHERE NOW
By 2016, a report: David Andrews and Bill Walker, “ ‘Erin Brockovich’ Carcinogen in Tap Water of More Than 200 Million Americans,” Environmental Working Group, September 20, 2016, http://www.ewg.org/research/chromium-six-found-in-us-tap-water.
Even after all these years: Jim Steinberg, “Milestone Reached in Cleanup of Polluted Hinkley Water Made Famous in ‘Erin Brockovich,’ ” San Bernardino Sun, April 20, 2017.
Groundwater in Hinkley tested as high as 580 ppb: Marla Cone, “Chromium in Drinking Water Causes Cancer,” Scientific American, February 9, 2009.
It’s estimated that it will take: David Danielski, “Spreading Pollution Spawns More Worries in Hinkley,” The Press-Enterprise, December 12, 2010.
In 2006, PG&E paid: Genevieve Bookwalter, “Pending Chromium 6 Limits Worry Small Water Company,” California Health Report, November 12, 2011.
Lockheed Martin: Andrew Blankstein and Jean Guccione, “Lockheed Linked to Chromium 6 Pollution,” Los Angeles Times, January, 21, 2001.
coal ash dump sites: Lisa Evans, “EPA’s Blind Spot: Hexavalent Chromium in Coal Ash,” Earth Justice Report, February 1, 2011.
A spokesperson from the company: Sedina Banks, “The ‘Erin Brockovich Effect’: How Media Shapes Toxics Policy,” University of California, Davis School of Law, 2003.
PG&E also sent an internal memo: Ibid.
“Between 1996 and 2008”: “Industry Groups Used Cherry-Picked Science to Avoid Regulation of Chromium,” Union of Concerned Scientists, Disinformation Playbook.
Dennis Paustenbach: David Heath, “How Industry Scientists Stalled Action on Carcinogen,” Center for Public Integrity, March 13, 2013.
The scientists sat in a hot tub: Corbett, Finley, Paustenbach, and Kerger, “Systemic Uptake of Chromium in Human Volunteers Following Dermal Contact with Hexavalent Chromium,” Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, April-June 1997.
They also drank jugs of water: Kerger, Finley, Corbett, Dodge, and Paustenbach, “Ingestion of Chromium(VI) in Drinking Water by Human Volunteers,” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, January 1997.
ChemRisk earned: Egilman and Scout, “Corporate Corruption of Science—the Case of Chromium(VI),” International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, April–June 2006.
While funding: “OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2015,” Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2015, p. 156.
She responded by saying: Cynthia McFadden, “Town Plagued with Contaminated Water,” ABC News, 1996.
Court papers later revealed: Peter Waldman, “Study Tied Pollutant to Cancer; Then Consultants Got Hold of It,” The Wall Street Journal, December 23, 2005.
The consultants were from ChemRisk: Ibid.
They made it look: Zhang and Li, “Cancer Mortality in a Chinese Population Exposed to Hexavalent Chromium in Water,” Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, April 1997.
retracted the paper: Melissa Lee Phillips, “Journal Retracts Chromium Study,” The Scientist, June 7, 2006.
John Stossel: John Stossel, Give Me a Break (New York: HarperCollins, 2004), p. 84.
A 2012 UCS report: “Heads They Win, Tails We Lose: How Corporations Corrupt Science at the Public’s Expense,” Union of Concerned Scientists, February 2012 Report.
Gary and I both testified: Senate Hearing of the Senate Health & Human Services Committee, “Possible Interference in the Scientific Review of Chromium VI Toxicity,” February 28, 2003, Los Angeles, California.
“The caution I’d give anybody”: Chip Jacobs and Kevin Uhrich, “Troubled Waters,” LA CityBeat, April 22, 2004.
In July 2014, California: “Frequently Asked Questions About Hexavalent Chromium in Drinking Water,” California Water Boards, September 25, 2015.
The National Toxicology Program studies: “Hexavalent Chromium,” National Toxicology Program Fact Sheet, February 2018.
The Superior Court of Sacramento County: Sara Jerome, “California Drops Tough Chromium-6 Standard,” Water Online, August 16, 2017.
“As if the current challenges”: Ryan McCarthy, “State Panel Removes Water Standard Opposed by Vacaville, Taxpayers Group,” Daily Republic, August 2, 2017.
While the MCL: “Chromium-6 Drinking Water MCL,” California Water Boards.
3. CONNECTING THE DOTS & BUILDING A MAP
In general, we see: “Cancer Statistics,” National Cancer Institute, April 27, 2018.
Cancer is the second leading cause: “Child Health,” National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Yet, forty-six American children: “About Us,” Trevor’s Trek Foundation.
Trevor’s Law: “Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act,” Public Law 114-182, June 22, 2016.
4. FLOATING IN A SEA OF CHEMICALS
The first thing: “How Much Water Is There on, in, and Above the Earth?” U.S. Geological Survey.
We’ve specifically seen: Lena H. Sun, “Legionnaires’ Outbreaks Cases Nearly Quadrupled in 15 Years,” The Washington Post, June 7, 2016.
“public health enemy number 1”: Stephen A. Hubbs, “Addressing Legionella: Public Health Enemy #1 in U.S. Water Systems,” Water Quality & Health Council, August 29, 2014.
We have more: “Drinking Water Requirements for States and Public Water Systems,” U.S. EPA.
Last amended in 1996: “President Clinton Signs Legislation to Ensure Americans Safe Drinking Water,” U.S. EPA press release, August 6, 1996.
Rates of chronic disease for children: “Percentage of U.S. Children Who Have Chronic Health Conditions on the Rise,” American Academy of Pediatrics, April 30, 2016.
Nearly half of U.S. adults: “About Chronic Diseases,” National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, September 5, 2018.
more than eighty-five thousand chemicals: “EPA Releases First Major Update to Chemicals List in 40 Years,” U.S. EPA press release, February 19, 2019.
We have studied: CNN Wire Staff, “Everyday Chemicals May Be Harming Kids, Panel Told,” CNN, October 26, 2010.
In 1975 John Quarles:“Quarles Testifies on the Need for Toxic Substances Act,” U.S. EPA press release, July 10, 1975.
Today, about two thousand: “Emerging Chemicals of Concern,” California Department of Toxic Substances Control, State of California, https://www.dtsc.ca.gov/assessingrisk/emergingcontaminants.cfm [inactive].
Congress passed the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA): “Summary of the Toxic Substances Control Act,” U.S. EPA.
It also gave the EPA authority: “TSCA Chemical Substance Inventory,” U.S. EPA.
In 2009 testimony: John Stephenson, “Chemical Regulation: Observations on Improving the Toxic Substances Control Act,” Testimony Before the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, December 2, 2009.
Meanwhile, the list: “NTP: Known to Be a Human Carcinogen,” Toxic Substances Portal, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, March 3, 2011.
presence of plastic fibers: Chris Tyree and Dan Morrison, “Invisibles: The Plastic Inside Us,” Orb.
We produce more: Emily J. North and Rolf U. Halden, “Plastics and Environmental Health: The Road Ahead,” Reviews on Environmental Health, January 22, 2013.
One thing we do know: Rolf U. Halden, “Plastics and Health Risks,” Annual Review of Public Health, January 13, 2010.
still in dispute: Warren Cornwall, “In BPA Safety War, a Battle over Evidence,” Science, February 9, 2017.
The Los Angeles Times reported: Ken Broder, “It’s Never Too Late to Test the Air Around Toxic Superfund Sites,” AllGov.com, March 10, 2015.
The property was declared: “Montrose & Del Amo Superfund Sites Update Fact Sheet,” U.S. EPA Region 9, Spring 2018.
By the 1990s, discoveries: Tony Barboza, “Shell to Spend $55 Million to Clean Soil at Old South Bay Rubber Plant,” Los Angeles Times, September 30, 2015.
About 53 million Americans: “Population Surrounding 1,836 Superfund Remedial Sites,” U.S. EPA, October 2017.
But the EPA provides a map: Consumer Confidence Reports (CCR), U.S. EPA, https://ofmpub.epa.gov/apex/safewater/f?p=ccr_wyl:102.
Get to know your watershed: “Surf Your Watershed,” U.S. EPA.
5. THE TOP TOXINS
A 2016 analysis: David Andrews and Bill Walker, “ ‘Erin Brockovich’ Carcinogen in Tap Water of More Than 200 Million Americans,” Environmental Working Group, September 20, 2016.
toxic air contaminant (TAC): “Understanding the History, Usage, and Regulation of Hexavalent Chromium,” Pantheon Enterprises.
This MCL: “Chromium in Drinking Water,” U.S. EPA.
carcinogenic after oral exposure: Matthew D. Stout, Ronald A. Herbert, Grace E. Kissling, Bradley J. Collins, Gregory S. Travlos, Kristine L. Witt, Ronald L. Melnick, Kamal M. Abdo, David E. Malarkey, and Michelle J. Hooth, “Hexavalent Chromium Is Carcinogenic to F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice After Chronic Oral Exposure,” Environmental Health Perspective, May 2009.
recommended for regulation: Julia Lurie, “Remember That ‘Erin Brockovich’ Chemical? There’s a Good Chance It’s in Your Water,” Mother Jones, September 22, 2016.
The process to establish: “Public Health Goals,” California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA).
annual Consumer Confidence Reports: “Consumer Confidence Reports (CCR),” U.S. EPA.
A chemical’s MCL is required: “Comparison of MCLs and PHGs for Regulated Contaminants in Drinking Water,” California Water Boards, November 19, 2018.
The California Department of Public Health: Michael S. Feely and John A. Heintz, “Calif. to Make Waves with New Drinking Water Standard,” Law360, February 28, 2014.
Coal ash: “New Report Reveals Toxic Coal Ash Contamination Threatens Public Health,” NJ Sierra Club press release, August 26, 2010.
the Drinking Water Quality Institute: “Meeting Minutes,” Drinking Water Quality Institute, September 10, 2010.
In North Carolina, residents: Michael Biesecker, “Testimony: Health Director Covered Up Cancer-Causing Water in North Carolina,” PBS NewsHour, August 2, 2016.
Hexavalent chromium: “Public Health Goal for Hexavalent Chromium (Cr VI) in Drinking Water,” Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology Branch, California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA), July 2011.
In 1974, scientists discovered: J. J. Rook, “Formation of Haloforms During Chlorination of Natural Waters,” Journal of Water Treatment Examination, 1974.
haloacetic acids (HAAs): “Disinfection By-Products,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, December 2, 2016.
But it is also a known carcinogen: J. K. Dunnick and R. L. Melnick, “Assessment of the Carcinogenic Potential of Chlorinated Water: Experimental Studies of Chlorine, Chloramine, and Trihalomethanes,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute, May 1993.
According to Hach: “Monochloramine Treatment Not as Effective in Protecting Drinking Water,” Chemical Online, March 2, 2007, the American Society for Microbiology and ASM Biodefense and Emerging Disease Research Meeting.
Genetic damage occurs: Jim Barlow, “Byproduct of Water-Disinfection Process Found to Be Highly Toxic,” University of Illinois press release, September 14, 2004.
In Washington, D.C., chloramines: Katherine Shaver and Dana Hedgpeth, “D.C.’s Decade-Old Problem of Lead in Water Gets New Attention During Flint Crisis,” The Washington Post, March 17, 2016.
The maximum residual disinfectant level (MRDL): “National Primary Drinking Water Regulations,” U.S. EPA.
Chloramines are known: “Water Treatment Process: Chloramination,” PWC & Partnership for Safe Water, Fayetteville, NC.
Studies have demonstrated: J. M. Wright, J. Schwartz, and D. W. Dockery, “Effect of Trihalomethane Exposure on Fetal Development,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, March 2003.
more than 6 million lead service lines: Rachel Layne, “Lead in America’s Water Systems Is a National Problem,” CBS News, November 21, 2018.
The U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry reported: “ATSDR Public Health Statement: Lead,” ATSDR, August 2007.
ordered stringent testing: Amy Zimmer, “83 Percent of City Schools Found with Too Much Lead in Water, Data Shows,” DNAinfo, April 28, 2017.
waited more than two months: Kelly House, “Portland Schools Lead: Superintendent Carole Smith Vows to ‘Take Responsibility,’ ” OregonLive.com, June 5, 2016.
New Jersey governor Chris Christie ordered: Susan K. Livio and Claude Brodesser-Akner, “Christie: All N.J. School Water Fountains to Be Tested for Lead,” NJ.com, May 4, 2016.
Schools and childcare facilities: “Drinking Water Requirements for States and Public Water Systems: Lead in Drinking Water in Schools and Childcare Facilities,” U.S. EPA.
not regulated under federal law: Ibid.
From a health perspective: “Study: Improvement Needed to Accurately Detect Precise Levels of Lead in Blood,” American Academy of Pediatrics, July 17, 2017.
The rule then established: “Drinking Water Requirements for States and Public Water Systems: Lead and Copper Rule,” U.S. EPA.
The EPA published: “Lead and Copper Rule Revisions White Paper,” U.S. EPA Office of Water, October 2016.
A January 2016 investigation: Oliver Milman, “U.S. Authorities Distorting Tests to Downplay Lead Content of Water,” The Guardian, January 22, 2016.
A 2016 Reuters report: M. B. Pell and Joshua Schneyer, “The Thousands of U.S. Locales Where Lead Poisoning Is Worse Than in Flint,” Reuters, December 19, 2016.
Another recent report: Oliver Milman, “U.S. Authorities Distorting Tests to Downplay Lead Content of Water,” The Guardian, January 22, 2016.
the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendment: H.R. 1068—Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 2017.
the first major overhaul of the LCR: “EPA Proposes Updates to Lead and Copper Rule to Better Protect Children and At-Risk Communities,” U.S. EPA website, October 10, 2019.
cities would only be required: Miranda Green and Rebecca Beitsch, “EPA to overhaul rule on testing for lead contamination,” The Hill, October 10, 2019.
said in a statement: “AWWA Statement on Revised Lead and Copper Rule,” American Water Works Association, October 10, 2019.
In 2016, New York: “Governor Cuomo Signs Landmark Legislation to Test Drinking Water in New York Schools for Lead Contamination,” New York State press release, September 6, 2016.
But environmental groups: Joan Leary Matthews, “Grade F to A? Getting Rid of Lead in School Drinking Water,” Natural Resources Defense Council, April 12, 2018.
California state assemblywoman Lorena Gonzalez Fletcher: California Assembly Bill No. 746, October 13, 2017.
It is also associated: “Lead and Copper Rule Revisions White Paper,” U.S. EPA Office of Water, October 2016.
Scientists have found: “Public Health Statement: Perfluoroalkyls,” ATSDR Division of Toxicology and Human Health Sciences, August 2015.
Researchers at Johns Hopkins: “PFOA and PFOS Detected in Newborns,” Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health press release, April 24 2007.
In 2017, the Environmental Working Group: Bill Walker and Soren Rundquist, “Mapping a Contamination Crisis: PFCs Pollute Tap Water for 15 Million People, Dozens of Industrial Sites,” Environmental Working Group, June 8, 2017.
“We earn our place”: “Our Approach,” DuPont company website, 2018.
profits from PFOA that year: Nathaniel Rich, “The Lawyer Who Became DuPont’s Worst Nightmare,” The New York Times Magazine, January 6, 2016.
In 2006, eight major companies: “Assessing and Managing Chemicals Under TSCA: Fact Sheet: 2010/2015 PFOA Stewardship Program,” U.S. EPA.
As of 2017, DuPont and Chemours Co.: Arathy S. Nair, “DuPont Settles Lawsuits over Leak of Chemical Used to Make Teflon,” Reuters, February 13, 2017.
$30 billion in sales in 2016: “3M Reports Fourth-Quarter and Full-Year 2016 Results,” 3M press release, January 24, 2017.
“PFOS is persistent”: “Co-operation on Existing Chemicals Hazard Assessment of Perflurooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and Its Salts,” Joint Meeting of the Chemicals Committee and the Working Party on Chemicals, Pesticides, and Biotechnology, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, November 21, 2002.
The U.S. Department of Defense knew: Kyle Bagenstose, “Dangers of Firefighting Foam Discussed in 2001, Document Shows,” The Intelligencer, June 9, 2017.
Communities near bases from Washington State: “Baron & Budd Investigating Potential Lawsuits Regarding PFOS and PFOA Contamination of Drinking Water,” Business Wire, May 17, 2017.
New York: Tiffany Kary, “Hamptons Tainted Water Lawsuit Adds to Slew of 3M Complaints,” Bloomberg News, June 14, 2017.
In 2016, Harvard researchers: Karen Feldscher, “Unsafe Levels of Toxic Chemicals Found in Drinking Water of 33 States,” Harvard Gazette, August 9, 2016.
3M makes water filters: “Water Quality: About 3M Residential Water Filtration Products,” 3M company website.
billions of dollars in legal fees: Annie Snider, “Exclusive: Trump EPA Won’t Limit 2 Toxic Chemicals in Drinking Water,” The Hill, January 28, 2019.
In 2013, a Harvard School of Public Health study: “U.S. Standards for ‘Safe’ Limits of PFCs in Drinking Water Appear Too High for Children,” Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health press release, January 2013.
Fourteen other states: Claire Condon, “EPA Targets PFAS—but Is Your State Ahead of the Game?” EHS Daily Advisor, January 2, 2018.
DuPont scientists have concluded: Arathy S. Nair, “DuPont Settles Lawsuits over Leak of Chemical Used to Make Teflon,” Reuters, February 13, 2017.
“Studies indicate that exposure”: “Fact Sheet: PFOA & PFOS Drinking Water Health Advisories,” U.S. EPA, November 2016.
Research has linked PFOS exposure: “Perfluorooctane Sulfonic Acid,” TOXNET Toxicology Data Network, National Library of Medicine, October 25, 2016.
80 percent of New Hanover County’s: Tim Buckland, “So Where Does Your CFPUA Water Come From?” StarNews Online, June 12, 2017.
now owned by Chemours has been dumping: Laura Leslie, “NCSU Scientist: GenX Not Only Toxic Chemical in Cape Fear River,” WRAL.com, July 28, 2017.
The EPA also issued: Sharon Lerner, “New Teflon Toxin Found in North Carolina Drinking Water,” The Intercept, June 17, 2017.
tumors and reproductive problems in lab animals: “N.C. Drinking Water Tainted with Chemical Byproduct for Decades?” CBS News, June 26, 2017.
By 2013, almost four thousand public water systems: “Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States,” Executive Summary, U.S. EPA, December 2016.
The EPA reports: “Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Fluid Data from the FracFocus Chemical Disclosure Registry 1.0,” U.S. EPA.
They include chemicals: Michael Greenwood, “Chemicals in Fracking Fluid and Wastewater Are Toxic, Study Shows,” Yale News, January 6, 2016.
We have more than a thousand documented cases: Abrahm Lustgarten, “Buried Secrets: Is Natural Gas Drilling Endangering U.S. Water Supplies?” ProPublica, November 13, 2008.
More than 17 million Americans: Eliza D. Czolowski, Renee L. Santoro, Tanja Srebotnjak, and Seth B. C. Shonko, “Open Access Toward Consistent Methodology to Quantify Populations in Proximity to Oil and Gas Development: A National Spatial Analysis and Review,” Environmental Health Perspectives, August 23, 2017.
“activities in the hydraulic”: “Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States,” Executive Summary, U.S. EPA, December 2016.
The following activities and factors: “Questions and Answers About EPA’s Hydraulic Fracturing Drinking Water Assessment,” U.S. EPA.
The Ohio Supreme Court: Robert Higgs, “Ohio Supreme Court Rules Munroe Falls Regulations on Oil and Gas Drilling Are Improper,” Cleveland.com, February 17, 2015.
The Colorado Supreme Court: Bruce Finley, “Colorado Supreme Court Rules State Law Trumps Local Bans on Fracking,” Denver Post, June 23, 2016.
a local paper reported: John Boyle, “Did Energy Group Bus Homeless In to Support Fracking?” Citizen Times, September 15, 2014.
In March 2017, Maryland: Pamela Wood, “Maryland General Assembly Approves Fracking Ban,” Baltimore Sun, March 27, 2017.
People who live near fracking wells report: Beth Weinberger, Lydia H. Greiner, Leslie Walleigh, and David Brown, “Health Symptoms in Residents Living near Shale Gas Activity: A Retrospective Record Review from the Environmental Health Project,” Preventive Medicine Reports, December 2017.
Researchers at Johns Hopkins University: Stephanie Desmon, “Study: Fracking Associated with Migraines, Fatigue, Chronic Nasal and Sinus Symptoms,” The Hub, Johns Hopkins University, August 25, 2016.
University of Colorado School of Public Health researchers found: Lisa M. McKenzie, William B. Allshouse, Tim E. Byers, Edward J. Bedrick, Berrin Serdar, and John L. Adgate, “Childhood Hematologic Cancer and Residential Proximity to Oil and Gas Development,” PLOS One, February 15, 2017.
Further research has found:“Endocrine-Disrupting Activity Linked to Birth Defects, Infertility Found near Drilling Sites,” Endocrine Society press release, 2013.
In 2011, total estimated commercial production of TCE: “Background and Environmental Exposures to Trichloroethylene in the United States,” Draft Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethylene, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
fungicides and insecticides: “Report on Carcinogens, Fourteenth Edition: Trichloroethylene,” National Toxicology Program, National Institutes of Health.
It was added to the list of substances: “14th Report on Carcinogens,” U.S Department of Health and Human Services, National Toxicology Program, November 3, 2016.
TCE and its health effects: Alexander Nazaryan, “Camp Lejeune and the U.S. Military’s Polluted Legacy,” Newsweek, July 16, 2014.
TCE was found in the drinking water: Eric Pianin, “The US Military Is Facing Another Polluted Drinking Water Scandal,” Business Insider, April 26, 2017.
The EPA set the MCL: “What Are EPA’s Drinking Water Regulations for Trichloroethylene?” U.S. EPA Fact Sheet.
These proposals: “Fact Sheet on Trichloroethylene (TCE),” U.S. EPA.
Health problems associated: “What Are Trichloroethylene’s Health Effects,” U.S. EPA Fact Sheet.
“carcinogenic to humans”: “Background and Environmental Exposures to Trichloroethylene in the United States,” Draft Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethylene, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
6. THE COMMUNITIES RISING
A water main breaks: “America’s Infrastructure Receives Poor Assessment,” PBS NewsHour, March 11, 2017.
Records showed: Ken Silverstein, “Clean Up Chemical Leaks and Put Safety First, Activist Tells West Virginians,” Forbes, January 14, 2014.
Even with a robust carbon filtration system: “Report on the National Toxicology Program Response to the Elk River Chemical Spill,” Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, June 16, 2015.
Many residents remained: “Investigation Report: Chemical Spill Contaminates Public Water Supply in Charleston, West Virginia,” U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board, September 2016.
sold out of bottled water: John Raby, “Chemical Spill into River Shuts Down Much of Charleston, W.Va.,” The Ledger, January 10, 2014.
“We don’t know”: Trip Gabriel, “Thousands Without Water After Spill in West Virginia,” The New York Times, January 10, 2014.
The agency set: Deborah Blum, “Our Toxicity Experiment in West Virginia,” Wired, January 18, 2014.
“There are unknowns”: Elizabeth Shogren, “The Big Impact of a Little-Known Chemical in W.Va. Spill,” NPR, January 13, 2014.
dodged questions from local reporters: Amy Goodman and Aaron Maté, “Erin Brockovich: After Chemical Spill, West Virginians Organizing ‘Stronger Than I’ve Ever Seen,’ ” Democracy Now!, January 14, 2014.
The damage had been done: Emily Atkin, “What Freedom Industries’ Bankruptcy Really Means for Those Harmed by the Chemical Spill,” ThinkProgress, January 22, 2014.
people refused to drink the water: Matt Pearce, “Many Reported Sickened After West Virginia Chemical Spill, Survey Says,” Los Angeles Times, May 21, 2014.
a federal judge fined: Ken Ward Jr., “Freedom Fined $900,000 for Elk Spill, but Unlikely to Ever Pay,” Charleston Gazette-Mail, February 4, 2016.
Southern did go to court: “Summary of Criminal Prosecutions,” U.S. EPA, 2016.
Southern was later accused: Associated Press, “Freedom Industries Pleads Guilty to Pollution Charges in West Virginia Chemical Spill Case,” Fox News, March 23, 2015.
Booth Goodwin, the lead prosecutor: Raf Sanchez, “British Executive Admits Spilling Chemicals into West Virginia Drinking Water,” The Telegraph, August 19, 2015.
In 2017, the $151 million settlement: Joseph Fitzwater, “Settlement Reached in Freedom Industries MCHM Class Action Lawsuit,” WOWK-TV, May 12, 2017.
Both companies issued statements: Rebecca Hersher, “$151 Million Settlement Deal Reached over West Virginia Water Poisoning,” NPR, November 1, 2016.
to help further regulate chemical storage: Joanna M. Foster, “West Virginia House Passes Chemical Storage Bill in Effort to Prevent Future Spills,” ThinkProgress, March 6, 2014.
The state completed all inspections: Brian Clark Howard, “A Year After West Virginia Chemical Spill, Some Signs of Safer Water,” National Geographic, January 10, 2015.
in 2015 scientists detected: Emily Atkin, “New Analysis Shows West Virginia’s Chemical Spill Traveled into Kentucky,” ThinkProgress, January 12, 2015.
West Virginia legislators passed: “WV Bill Would Exempt O&G Industry from Storage Tank Law,” Marcellus Drilling News, March 13, 2017.
EPA administrator Gina McCarthy said: Gina McCarthy, “U.S. EPA’s Cabinet Exit Memo,” U.S. EPA, January 5, 2017.
“The implications of deteriorating infrastructure”: Jim Gebhardt, “The Time to Invest in America’s Water Infrastructure Is Now,” The EPA Blog, July 12, 2016.
President Lyndon Johnson visited: Pam Fessler, “Kentucky County That Gave War on Poverty a Face Still Struggles,” NPR, January 8, 2014.
the poverty rate: “QuickFacts: Martin County, Kentucky,” U.S. Census Bureau.
A coal slurry spill: Nina McCoy, “A Victim of Official Abuse, Martin County Says ‘Time’s Up,’ ” Lexington Herald-Leader, February 11, 2018.
More than one in ten households: Christian Detisch, “How Many People Can’t Afford Their Water Bills? Too Many,” Food & Water Watch, March 21, 2017.
“Two years after Flint”: “Martin County Could See Huge Rate Increase Despite Failing System,” Food & Water Watch press release, January 24, 2018.
Baum once said about his work: James A. Fussell, “Meet L. Frank Baum, The Man Behind the Curtain,” Kansas City Star, August 31, 2014.
Led by both the oil and steel industries: Kenneth G. McCarty, “Farmers, the Populist Party, and Mississippi (1870–1900),” Mississippi History Now, July 2003.
according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture: Ibid.
In an essay: Henry Littlefield, “The Wizard of Oz: Parable on Populism,” American Quarterly 16, no. 1 (Spring, 1964), pp. 47–58.
Americans eat more chicken: “Broiler Chicken Industry Key Facts 2018,” National Chicken Council.
Each year, the chicken industry: Ibid.
leads in the production of ready-to-cook poultry products: Amanda Little, “Tyson Isn’t Chicken,” Bloomberg Businessweek, August 15, 2018.
Tyson was the second-biggest polluter: “America’s Next Big Polluter: Corporate Agribusiness,” Environment America Research & Policy Center.
By 1999, up to one-third of underground wells: Peter S. Goodman, “An Unsavory Byproduct: Runoff and Pollution,” The Washington Post, August 1, 1999.
unless they have this permit: “National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES),” U.S. EPA.
In 2003, Tyson pleaded guilty:“Tyson Pleads Guilty to 20 Felonies and Agrees to Pay $7.5 Million to Clean Water Act Violations,” Department of Justice press release, June 25, 2003.
Despite several citations: Ibid.
Tyson and five other poultry companies: Sheila Stogsdill, “Animal Waste Caused Pollution, Study Shows,” The Oklahoman, November 22, 2003.
Tyson paid the maximum fine: Lynn LaRowe, “Tyson Foods to Pay $500,000,” Texarkana News, June 13, 2009.
The Justice Department fined: Bryan Salvage, “Tyson Fined $2M for Animal Waste Discharging Violation,” Meat + Poultry, August 21, 2009.
Tyson paid another $5.2 million: Tom Schoenberg, “Tyson Foods to Pay $5.2 Million over Mexican Bribes,” Bloomberg News, February 10, 2011.
Tyson paid $32 million to settle: Dan Rivoli, “Tyson Settles Donning, Doffing MDL for $32M,” Law360, September 6, 2011.
The company settled: “Tyson Foods $7.75 Million Settlement Approved by Judge,” WATTAgNet.com, July 23, 2014.
In 2016, Oxfam America released a report: “No Relief: Denial of Bathroom Breaks in the Poultry Industry,” Oxfam America, 2016.
“We believe sustainability”: “Tyson Foods Commits to New, Sustainable Approach to a Better Workplace,” Tyson Foods press release, April 26, 2017.
“The continued presence”: Erica Shaffer, “Tonganoxie City Council Tanks Proposed Tyson Plant,” Meat + Poultry, October 4, 2017.
revoked its decision: Megan Durisin and Shruti Singh, “How Tyson’s Chicken Plant Became a $320 Million Turkey,” Bloomberg Businessweek, October 11, 2017.
National regulations: “Chromium in Drinking Water,” U.S. EPA.
In a New York Times article: Jeremy P. Jacobs, “Another Pollution Battle Looms in Erin Brockovich’s Town,” The New York Times, August 18, 2011.
But a feasibility study: “Hinkley Chromium Clean-Up Could Take More Than a Century,” Trager Water Report, November 29, 2010.
three hundred more properties in Hinkley: Paloma Esquivel, “15 Years After ‘Erin Brockovich,’ Town Still Fearful of Polluted Water,” Los Angeles Times, April 12, 2015.
The company still admitted: Molly Peterson, “PG&E Makes $3.6 Million Settlement with Hinkley, Its Second in 20 Years,” KPCC, March 16, 2012.
Hinkley’s school shut down: Jim Steinberg, “Hinkley Residents Angered at Decision to Close Town’s Only School,” The Sun, February 27, 2013.
“It’s a very complex project”: Miles O’Brien, “Protecting Americans from Danger in the Drinking Water,” PBS NewsHour, March 13, 2013.
Reports from the water board: Letter to Kevin Sullivan, “Conditional Acceptance of Plan to Improve Lower Aquifer Chromium Remediation and Modification to Agricultural Treatment Unit Permit Monitoring and Reporting Program…,” Lahontan Regional Water Quality Board, December 22, 2014.
cleanup and abatement actions: “Cleanup and Abatement Order NO. R6V-2015-0068,” California Regional Water Quality Control Board Lahontan Region, November 4, 2015.
PG&E’s top environmental executives: Jim Steinberg, “Milestone Reached in Cleanup of Polluted Hinkley Water Made Famous in ‘Erin Brockovich,’ ” The Sun, April 20, 2017.
a 1964 letter from the U.S. Department of the Interior: Donna Foote, “Erin Fights Goliath,” Newsweek, March 12, 2000.
In 2002, PG&E spokesman Jon Tremayne: David Lazarus, “Erin Brockovich Going After PG&E Again,” SF Gate, January 13, 2002.
market manipulations spearheaded by Enron: Richard A. Oppel Jr. and Jeff Gerth, “Enron Forced Up California Prices, Documents Show,” The New York Times, May 7, 2002.
rolling blackouts throughout the state: Rene Sanchez and Peter Behr, “California Utility Declares Insolvency,” The Washington Post, April 7, 2001.
But California’s governor, Gray Davis: David Lazarus, “PG&E Files for Bankruptcy / $9 Billion in Debt, Firm Abandons Bailout Talks with State,” SF Gate, April 7, 2001.
Consumer advocates: “Bankruptcy Reorganization Plan Violates State Law,” Consumer Watchdog, 2001.
$335 million in 2006: Laura Roberts, “BP Oil Disaster: Major Compensation Payouts from Other Global Corporations,” The Telegraph, June 17, 2010.
In a twenty-two-page decision: David Lazarus, “Erin Brockovich Going After PG&E Again,” SF Gate, January 13, 2002.
“Clearly, this situation”: David Pierson and Hemmy So, “PG&E Will Pay Residents Who Sued over Groundwater Pollution,” Los Angeles Times, February 4, 2006.
In 2016, a federal jury: Associated Press, “PG&E Is Found Guilty of Obstructing Investigators After Deadly 2010 Pipeline Blast,” Los Angeles Times, August 9, 2016.
Ultimately, PG&E: George Avalos, “PG&E Gets Maximum Sentence for San Bruno Crimes,” Mercury News, January 27, 2017.
This was after the company spent: Taryn Luna, “PG&E Spends More Than $1 Million to Lobby California Officials on Wildfire Laws,” Sacramento Bee, August 1, 2018.
huge safety failures: Russell Gold, Katherine Blunt, and Rebecca Smith, “PG&E Sparked at Least 1,500 California Fires. Now the Utility Faces Collapse,” The Wall Street Journal, January 13, 2019.
The company’s equipment allegedly sparked: Cleve R. Wootson Jr., “The Deadliest, Most Destructive Wildfire in California’s History Has Finally Been Contained,” The Washington Post, November 26, 2018.
Meanwhile, BlueMountain Capital Management LLC: Tomi Kilgore, “PG&E Shareholder BlueMountain Says Bankruptcy Filing Would Be ‘Utter Abdication’ of Duty to Shareholders,” January 17, 2019.
“Rather than spend the money”: Jeff Daniels, “ ‘Pretty Overwhelming’ Evidence Against PG&E in Deadly Paradise Fire, Says Attorney Suing CA Utility,” CNBC, November 14, 2018.
said California governor Gavin Newsom: Phil Willon, “Newsom Tested Right Out of the Gate with Teachers’ Strike and PG&E Crisis,” Los Angeles Times, January 28, 2019.
In addition, he said: J. D. Morris, “Does PG&E Need to File for Bankruptcy? Erin Brockovich Doubts It,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 22, 2018.
30 percent live below the poverty line: “American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates,” U.S. Census Bureau, 2017, Census Reporter Profile for Kettleman City, CA.
For years, residents have suspected: Jacques Leslie, “What’s Killing the Babies of Kettleman City?” Mother Jones, July/August 2010.
Back in 2008, EPA tests: Allen Martin, “California Town’s Water Tainted with Arsenic for Decades,” KPIX 5 San Francisco, May 19, 2016.
research from the Environmental Integrity Project: “Drinking Water for 55,000 Californians Has Illegal Levels of Arsenic,” Environmental Integrity Project press release, September 12, 2016.
The notices mailed to consumers: Ibid.
The California state government: Lewis Griswold, “Environmentalists, State Settle Differences over Hazardous Waste Site,” Fresno Bee, September 6, 2016.
About 15 percent of Americans: Jennifer LaVista, “Contamination in U.S. Private Wells,” U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), March 2009.
from this kind of contamination: “Learn About Private Water Wells,” U.S. EPA.
In a statement: “Brockovich: Midland, Texas Water Sullied,” CBS News, June 10, 2009.
The TCEQ maintains: Kathleen Thurber, “Residents File Lawsuit Against Companies in Relation to Hexavalent Chromium Contamination,” Midland Reporter-Telegram, April 9, 2011.
7. SAYING NO TO “UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES”
General Electric (GE) dumped: “Hudson River PCBs,” Riverkeeper.
Exposure to these odorless man-made chemicals: “Learn About Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs),” U.S. EPA.
The EPA and GE have worked together:“EPA Expands Scope of Hudson River Cleanup Analysis,” U.S. EPA press release, January 29, 2018.
list of “Most Miserable Cities”: “America’s Most Miserable Cities 2013,” Forbes.
In a paper: Djanette Khiari, “The Role and Behavior of Chloramines in Drinking Water,” Water Research Foundation. June 2018.
a suspected carcinogen: “Technical Fact Sheet: N-Nitroso-dimethylamine (NDMA),” U.S. EPA, January 2014.
When exposed at high levels: “Public Health Statement: What Is N-Nitrosodimethylamine?” Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
“NDMA is preferentially”: Stuart W. Krasner, “Controlling Nitrosamines: A Balancing Act,” American Water Works Journal, June 2017.
A 2007 study: John Tibbetts, “Chloramine Catch: Water Disinfectant Can Raise Lead Exposure,” Environmental Health Perspectives, February 2007.
Even the U.S. EPA: Sara Jerome, “EPA Considering Change in Chloramine Rules,” Water Online, August 12, 2016.
A 2009 EPA report: “Chloramines-Related Research: What Does EPA See as the Disadvantages of Using Monochloramine?” U.S. EPA, February 24, 2009.
said the lead author of the study: Kris Maher, “Use of a Water Disinfectant Is Challenged,” The Wall Street Journal, August 9, 2016.
In 2011 officials in Tulsa, Oklahoma: Emily Baucum, “Major Changes Coming to Tulsa Drinking Water,” News on 6, October 14, 2011.
“Most Livable Cities”: Zack O’Malley Greenburg, “America’s Most Livable Cities,” Forbes, April 1, 2009.
Here’s the statement: Michael Bates, “Chloramine Controversy: Safe for Tulsa’s Water?” BatesLine website, October 17, 2011.
By the summer of 2012: “Other Major Accomplishments,” Tulsa Metropolitan Utility Authority.
In May 2016 a two-week citywide order: Kim Womack, “City Manager Ron Olson Resigns,” City of Corpus Christi Newsroom, May 17, 2016.
An estimated 1,550 boil-water advisories: Associated Press, “Boil-Water Alerts on the Rise in Texas,” CBS DFW, May 29, 2016.
Corpus Christi has 225 miles: Asher Price, “Corpus Christi Facing Water Crisis amid Contamination Concerns,” Austin American-Statesman, December 16, 2016.
“We historically have not replaced”: Matt Woolbright, “What Led to Corpus Christi’s Water Crisis? Depends Who You Ask,” The Caller-Times, May 21, 2016.
In total, the ban lasted four days: Associated Press, “Corpus Christi Lifts Drinking Water Ban,” The Wall Street Journal, December 18, 2016.
“In our view, chloramines”: Kris Maher, “Use of a Water Disinfectant Is Challenged,” The Wall Street Journal, August 9, 2016.
close to ten thousand: “Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report: Notifiable Diseases and Mortality Tables,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, December 8, 2017.
ninety-one confirmed cases: Elisha Anderson, “Genesee County Confirms Its First Case of Legionnaires,’ ” Detroit Free Press, July 6, 2016.
suspected deaths still in question: Oona Goodin-Smith, “More Deaths May Be Tied to Flint Legionella Outbreak Than Reported, Expert Says,” MLive.com, September 21, 2017.
Another outbreak at California’s Disneyland: Tony Barboza, “Disneyland Shuts Down 2 Cooling Towers After Legionnaires’ Disease Sickens Park Visitors,” Los Angeles Times, November 11, 2017.
CDC research: Mike Stobbe, “Most Legionnaires’ Deaths Tied to Spray from Shower, Faucet,” Business Insider, August 13, 2015.
Before the election, the Hannibal Courier-Post interviewed her: “Meet the Candidates: 2 Vying to Represent Ward 3 on Hannibal City Council,” Hannibal Courier-Post, March 21, 2017.
On April 4, 2017, voters showed up: Ashley Szatala, “Use of Ammonia in Hannibal Drinking Water Will Cease,” The Herald-Whig, April 5, 2017.
a granulated-activated-carbon system for the city: Ashley Szatala, “Hannibal BPW Directors Choose Carbon Filtration System to Filter Drinking Water,” The Herald-Whig, February 20, 2018.
Since 2009, Columbia Water and Light: Alyssa Casares, “Columbia’s Water Disinfection Method Switched from Chlorine to Chloramine,” KBIA 91.3FM, November 6, 2014.
In a 2016 letter: David J. Lamb, Letter to Mayor Brian Treece, September 21, 2016, https://www.como.gov/utilities/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2017/04/DNRwaterColumbiaSept2016.pdf.
“We feel it’s very short-sighted”: Yehyun Kim, “Residents Explore Alternatives for Columbia Water Treatment,” Columbia Missourian, January 25, 2018.
8. LOCAL POLITICS RUN AMOK
The new law: Michigan House Bill No. 4214, March 16, 2011.
In his first few days: Oona Goodin-Smith, “Flint’s History of Emergency Management and How It Got to Financial Freedom,” MLive.com, January 16, 2018.
At the time, the city’s: City of Flint: Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, June 30, 2011.
Brown’s salary: Kristin Longley, “State-Appointed Emergency Managers Make Six Figures at Local Community’s Expense,” MLive.com, December 27, 2011.
increasing its rates: Jeff Wright, “The Flint Water Crisis, DWSD, and GLWA,” Michigan Civil Rights Commission & Flint Water Crisis Committee, November 22, 2016.
In addition, the Flint River: Susan J. Masten, Simon H. Davies, and Shawn P. McElmurry, “Flint Water Crisis: What Happened and Why?” Journal of the American Water Works Association, December 2016.
The river flows: David Rosner, “Flint’s Toxic Industrial Legacy,” Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, January 26, 2016.
“The expedited time-frame”: Susan J. Masten, Simon H. Davies, and Shawn P. McElmurry, “Flint Water Crisis: What Happened and Why?” Journal of the American Water Works Association, December 2016.
April 2014 email: Ibid.
Flint mayor Dayne Walling: Merrit Kennedy, “Lead-Laced Water in Flint: A Step-by-Step Look at the Makings of a Crisis,” NPR, April 20, 2016.
The company negotiated: Ron Fonger, “General Motors Shutting Off Flint River Water at Engine Plant over Corrosion Worries,” MLive.com, October 13, 2014.
GM was one of the largest: Lindsey Smith, “How People in Flint Were Stripped of a Basic Human Need: Safe Drinking Water,” Michigan Radio, December 15, 2015.
The results: Lindsey Smith, “This Mom Helped Uncover What Was Really Going On with Flint’s Water,” Michigan Radio, December 14, 2015.
the following statement: Ron Fonger, “Emergency Manager Calls City Council’s Flint River Vote ‘Incomprehensible,’ ” MLive.com, March 24, 2015.
Officials at the MDEQ: Paul Egan, “Fired DEQ Official Pleads Fifth in Flint Water Probe,” Detroit Free Press, June 16, 2016.
Within a year: Mark Brush and Sarah Hulett, “EPA Region 5 Administrator Susan Hedman to Resign in Wake of the Flint Water Crisis,” Michigan Radio, January 21, 2016; Paul Egan, “DEQ Director Wyant Resigns over Flint Water Crisis,” Lansing State Journal, December 29, 2015.
So far, fifteen officials: Paul Egan, “These Are the 15 People Criminally Charged in the Flint Water Crisis,” Detroit Free Press, June 14, 2017.
Nick Lyon: Ed White, “Flint Official Faces Manslaughter Trial over Deaths Possibly Caused by Tainted Water,” Time, August 20, 2018.
On average, Flint residents: Ron Fonger, “Flint Water Prices Almost Eight Times National Average, Erin Brockovich Associate Says,” MLive.com, March 17, 2015.
LeeAnne offered her testimony: LeeAnne Walters testimony to the House Oversight and Governmental Reform Committee, February 3, 2016.
Marc told the Detroit News: Jim Lynch, “EPA Stayed Silent on Flint’s Tainted Water,” Detroit News, January 12, 2016.
these Virginia Tech scientists: Dr. Marc Edwards et al., “Lead Testing Results for Water Sampled by Residents,” Flint Water Study, September 2015.
In their report: Dr. Marc Edwards et al., “Our Sampling of 252 Homes Demonstrates a High Lead in Water Risk: Flint Should Be Failing to Meet the EPA Lead and Copper Rule,” Flint Water Study, September 8, 2015.
Elin said in an interview: Ryan Grimes, “High School Friend Sounded First Alert to Flint’s Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha,” Michigan Radio, February 16, 2016.
Her study was eventually published: Mona Hanna-Attisha, Jenny LaChance, Richard Casey Sadler, and Allison Champney Schnepp, “Elevated Blood Lead Levels in Children Associated with the Flint Drinking Water Crisis: A Spatial Analysis of Risk and Public Health Response,” American Journal of Public Health, February 2016.
“Our data is just a snapshot”: Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha testimony to House Democratic Steering and Policy Committee, “The Flint Water Crisis: Lessons for Protecting America’s Children,” February 10, 2016.
a $100 million grant: “EPA Awards $100 Million to Michigan for Flint Water Infrastructure Upgrades,” U.S. EPA press release, March 17, 2017.
Virginia Tech scientist Marc Edwards: “Gov. Rick Snyder Announces Comprehensive Efforts to Strengthen Flint,” Office of Governor Rick Snyder press release, January 27, 2016.
his former colleagues: Robby Korth, “Virginia Tech’s Flint Research Professor Accuses Ex-Colleagues of Defamation,” Roanoke Times, July 26, 2018.
other Flint researchers: “Mackinac Center and Virginia Tech Professor Dr. Marc Edwards Sue Wayne State over Flint Water Documents,” Mackinac Center for Public Policy press release, June 13, 2018.
Virginia Tech has been awarded: “EPA Awards $4 Million in Grants to Research Lead in Drinking Water,” U.S. EPA press release, April 25, 2018.
the city clerk’s office: Jiquanda Johnson, “More than 50 petitions Taken Out for Seats on Flint City Council,” MLive.com, February 3, 2017.
His top three policy priorities: “Meet the 17 Candidates Running for Flint City Council,” MLive.com, October 25, 2017.
they have repealed a law: Oona Goodin-Smith, “Flint Emergency Manager Order Repealed, City Officially in Control of Finances,” MLive.com, January 22, 2018.
“I noticed articles”: Adele Peters, “This 11-Year-Old Invented a Cheap Test Kit for Lead in Drinking Water,” Fast Company, July 13, 2017.
More than 18 million Americans: Erik D. Olson and Kristi Pullen Fedinick, “What’s in Your Water? Flint and Beyond,” Natural Resources Defense Council, June 28, 2016.
The Philadelphia Water Department is facing a class action lawsuit: Jessica Glenza, “Philadelphia Water Department Faces Class Action Lawsuit over Water Testing,” The Guardian, June 3, 2016.
the world’s largest oil-storage tank farm: Catherine Ngai, “Cushing Hub’s Crude Storage Shell, Working Capacity Edges Lower: EIA,” Reuters, May 31, 2017.
“pipeline crossroads of the world”: Jessica Resnick-Ault, “Oil Glut Up Close: How Cushing Copes with Full Crude Tanks,” Reuters, April 5, 2016.
earthquake capital of the world: Jessica Miller, “Oklahoma World’s No. 1 Earthquake Area,” Enid News & Eagle, November 10, 2015.
hundreds of earthquakes per year: USGS-NEIC ComCat & Oklahoma Geological Survey, Preliminary as of December 3, 2018.
drilling competes with farming: Michael Klare, “How Obama Became the Oil President,” Mother Jones, September 12, 2014.
19 billion gallons of freshwater: Elizabeth Ridlington, Kim Norman, and Rachel Richardson, “Fracking by the Numbers: The Damage to Our Water, Land and Climate from a Decade of Dirty Drilling,” Environment America Research & Policy Center and Frontier Group, April 2016.
triggering the tremors: Thea Hincks, Willy Aspinall, Roger Cooke, and Thomas Gernon, “Oklahoma’s Induced Seismicity Strongly Linked to Wastewater Injection Depth,” Science, March 16, 2018.
The water cycle has five parts to it: EPA’s Study of Hydraulic Fracturing and Its Potential Impact on Drinking Water Resources: The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle, U.S. EPA.
in a 2015 statement: Michael Wines, “Oklahoma Recognizes Role of Drilling in Earthquakes,” The New York Times, April 21, 2015.
Scott Pruitt: Robinson Meyer, “Could Scott Pruitt Have Fixed Oklahoma’s Earthquake Epidemic?” The Atlantic, January 18, 2017.
Oklahoma governor Mary Fallin: Michael Wines, “Oklahoma Recognizes Role of Drilling in Earthquakes,” The New York Times, April 21, 2015.
In an aptly titled 2015 lecture: Justin Rubinstein, “Yes, Humans Really Are Causing Earthquakes,” USGS Monthly Evening Lecture Series, U.S. Geological Survey, August 27, 2015.
more than a thousand earthquakes: Rivka Galchen, “Weather Underground: The Arrival of Man-Made Earthquakes,” The New Yorker, April 13, 2015.
produced water: Jessica Morrison, “Earthquakes and Fracking Activities Linked in Environmental Protection Agency Report,” Chemical & Engineering News, February 13, 2015.
landowners and farmers alike: Forum News Service, “Saltwater Spills Can Cause Lasting Damage,” SOS Environmental, October 29, 2015.
dozens of earthquakes: Robinson Meyer, “Could Scott Pruitt Have Fixed Oklahoma’s Earthquake Epidemic?” The Atlantic, January 18, 2017.
Since 2011, well operators: Thea Hincks, Willy Aspinall, Roger Cooke, and Thomas Gernon, “Oklahoma’s Earthquakes Strongly Linked to Wastewater Injection Depth,” ScienceDaily, February 1, 2018.
These disposal wells: Susan Phillips, “Could Fracking Earthquakes Shake Pennsylvania?” StateImpact Pennsylvania, January 23, 2012.
Arkansas lawmakers banned: Ibid.
Earthquakes also impact drinking water: Michelle Sneed, Devin L. Galloway, and William L. Cunningham, “Earthquakes—Rattling the Earth’s Plumbing System,” U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 096-03.
the largest earthquake: “Magnitude 5.8 Earthquake in Oklahoma,” USGS press release, September 3, 2016.
The earthquake occurred: “Geophysicist Says Pawnee Earthquake Happened on Newly Discovered Fault,” KWCH12, September 6, 2016.
“That was the one earthquake”: Ross Kenneth Urken, “Native Americans Sue Frackers over Manmade Earthquakes,” National Geographic, July 6, 2017.
since 1875: “Pawnee History,” Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma website, http://www.pawneenation.org/page/home/pawnee-history.
a multi-year study: “Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report),” U.S. EPA, December 2016.
Some of its main points: Ibid.
one of the largest shale formations: “How Much Gas Is in the Marcellus Shale?” U.S. Geological Survey.
Kramer told the town board: Glynis Hart, “Dryden Takes First Step to Ban Fracking,” Ithaca Times, April 21, 2011.
according to research: “Local Resolutions Against Fracking,” Food & Water Watch, https://www.foodandwaterwatch.org/insight/local-resolutions-against-fracking.
a permanent moratorium: CNN Wire Staff, “Vermont First State to Ban Fracking,” CNN, May 17, 2012.
Cuomo banned fracking: Thomas Kaplan, “Citing Health Risks, Cuomo Bans Fracking in New York State,” The New York Times, December 17, 2014.
a bill banning fracking: Brian Witte, “Maryland Governor Signs Fracking Ban into Law,” AP News, April 4, 2017.
a ten-year ban on fracking: Zack Burdryk, “Oregon House Approves 10-Year Fracking Ban,” The Hill, March 19, 2019.
the EPA offers guidelines: “3Ts for Reducing Lead in Drinking Water in Schools and Child Care Facilities,” U.S. EPA.
9. HEROES FIGHTING POLLUTION AT MILITARY BASES
with toxins spread: Abrahm Lustgarten, “Open Burns, Ill Wounds,” ProPublica, July 20, 2017.
The EPA has identified: Corinne Roels, Briana Smith, Adrienne St. Clair, and News21 staff, “Military Bases’ Contamination Will Affect Water for Generations,” Center for Public Integrity and Carnegie-Knight News21 program, August 22, 2017.
Retired Michigan congressman and veteran John D. Dingell: Alexander Nazaryan, “Camp Lejeune and the U.S. Military’s Polluted Legacy,” Newsweek, July 16, 2014.
McClellan Air Force Base: McClellan Air Force Base, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, November 2, 2018.
Wright Patterson Air Force Base: “City of Dayton Demands Wright-Patterson Air Force Base Stop Contaminating Water Source,” City of Dayton, Ohio, press release, February 8, 2018.
Fort McClellan: “Public Health: Potential Exposure at Fort McClellan,” U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs.
The EPA has found: “Superfund Site: Hill Air Force Base, Hill AFB, UT,” U.S. EPA.
“to fulfill President Lincoln’s promise”: Mission Statement, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs.
the Feres Doctrine: Feres v. United States, 340 U.S. 135 (1950).
a collection of three cases: Rachel Natelson, “The Unfairness of the Feres Doctrine,” Time, February 25, 2013.
CTS Corp.: “Cleanup to Begin at the CTS Superfund Site in Asheville, N.C,” U.S. EPA press release, November 17, 2017.
The CTS Corp. v. Waldburger case: CTS Corp. v. Waldburger, 573 U.S. No. 13-339 (2014).
the Department of Justice: Ibid.
a 2017 report: “Report to Congressional Committees: Military Base Realignments and Closures,” U.S. Government Accountability Office, January 2017.
about three thousand children are diagnosed with ALL: David A. Siegel, S. Jane Henley, Jun Li, Lori A. Pollack, Elizabeth A. Van Dyne, and Arica White, “Rates and Trends of Pediatric Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia—United States, 2001–2014,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, September 15, 2017.
The American Cancer Society states: “What Are the Risk Factors for Childhood Leukemia?” American Cancer Society.
in a 2012 interview: Brian Lamb, “Q&A with Jerry Ensminger and Rachel Libert,” C-SPAN transcript, March 15, 2012.
The Marine Corps said: Manuel Roig-Franzia, “Water Probe Backs Marine Corps Defense,” The Washington Post, October 7, 2004.
This letter: Carey P. McCord, “Toxicity of Trichloroethylene,” Journal of the American Medical Association, July 30, 1932.
researchers from the Harvard School of Public Health published: S. W. Lagakos, B. J. Wessen, and M. Zelen, “An Analysis of Contaminated Well Water and Health Effects in Woburn, Massachusetts,” Journal of the American Statistical Association, vol. 81 (1986).
A 1994 analysis: P. Cohn, J. Klotz, F. Bove, M. Berkowitz, and J. Fagliano, “Drinking Water Contamination and the Incidence of Leukemia and Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma,” Environmental Health Perspectives, June-July 1994.
the EPA did not classify TCE: “Toxicological Review of Trichloroethylene,” U.S. EPA, September 2011.
250 million pounds: “Risk Management for Trichloroethylene (TCE),” U.S. EPA.
The EPA has proposed: Ibid.
“Baby Heaven”: Alexander Nazaryan, “Camp Lejeune and the U.S. Military’s Polluted Legacy,” Newsweek, July 16, 2014.
a Superfund site: ATSDR Public Health Assessment for Camp Lejeune Drinking Water, U.S. Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, January 20, 2017.
worst and largest water contamination: “A Few Good Men, a Lot of Bad Water,” Dan Rather Reports, October 21, 2008.
court documents: CTS Corp. v. Waldburger, 573 U.S. No. 13-339, Brief of Jerry Ensminger, the Estate of Christopher Townsend, Mike Partain, Kris Thomas, and the Estate of Rosanne Warren as Amici Curiae in Support of Respondents.
Mike Partain, “Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune Chronology of Significant Events Concerning Contamination of the Base Drinking Water Supply,” Tftptf.com, Part 1, 1941–October 1989, http://tftptf.com/Misc/Timeline_Linked_March_2012.pdf.
A Condensed Timeline: Associated Press, “Key Events in Camp Lejeune’s Water Contamination,” San Diego Union-Tribune, April 28, 2009.
A new PHA: “ATSDR Releases Public Health Assessment of Drinking Water at Camp Lejeune,” Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, January 26, 2017.
introduced a bill: Amanda Greene, “Justice for Janey,” Star-News, August 26, 2007.
Honoring America’s Veterans: H.R. 1627—Honoring America’s Veterans and Caring for Camp Lejeune Families Act of 2012, Public Law No: 112-154, August 6, 2012.
In 2017, the VA passed a rule: “New Rule Establishes a Presumption of Service Connection for Diseases Associated with Exposure to Contaminants in the Water Supply at Camp Lejeune,” Official Blog of the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, January 13, 2017.
The manufacturers of these chemicals: Sharon Lerner, “3M Knew About the Dangers of PFOA and PFOS Decades Ago, Internal Documents Show,” The Intercept, July 31, 2018.
Despite a deal: Tom Roeder and Jakob Rodgers, “Toxic Legacy: Air Force Studies Dating Back Decades Show Danger of Foam That Contaminated Local Water,” The Gazette, October 23, 2016.
The Union of Concerned Scientists reported: Michael Halpern, “Bipartisan Outrage as EPA, White House Try to Cover Up Chemical Health Assessment,” Union of Concerned Scientists Blog, May 16, 2018.
“The public, media, and Congressional reaction”: Annie Snider, “White House, EPA Headed Off Chemical Pollution Study,” Politico, May 14, 2018.
The EPA estimates: Technical Fact Sheet—Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA), U.S. EPA, November 2017.
“It is unacceptable”: “NH Delegation Calls on Trump Administration to Immediately Release Study About Health Impacts of PFOA and PFOS,” Office of U.S. Senator Maggie Hassan of New Hampshire press release, May 15, 2018.
Groundwater in western Michigan: Dan Kildee et al., Letter to Scott Pruitt, December 5, 2017.
National Defense Authorization Act: H.R. 2810—National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2018, Public Law No: 115-91, December 12, 2017.
Federal lawmakers approved a budget: Kyle Bagenstose, “Federal Budget Bill Includes $10M for PFAS Health Study, $85M for Cleanup,” The Intelligencer, March 23, 2018.
In a bipartisan letter: Carol A. Clark, “Udall, Heinrich Call on EPA to Set Federal Drinking Water Standards for PFOA and PFOS,” Los Alamos Daily Post, February 7, 2019.
the military has been investigating: Maureen Sullivan, “Addressing Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA),” U.S. Department of Defense, March 2018.
the DoD tested another 2,688: Tara Copp, “DoD: At Least 126 Bases Report Water Contaminants Linked to Cancer, Birth Defects,” MilitaryTimes.com, April 26, 2018.
ulcerative colitis: Kyle Steenland, Liping Zhao, Andrea Winquist, and Christine Parks, “Ulcerative Colitis and Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) in a Highly Exposed Population of Community Residents and Workers in the Mid-Ohio Valley,” Environmental Health Perspectives, June 2013.
low birth weights: Kellyn Betts, “PFOS and PFOA in Humans: New Study Links Prenatal Exposure to Lower Birth Weight,” Environmental Health Perspectives, November 2007.
Testing for Pease: Testing for Pease website, http://www.testingforpease.com.
Hailey Bussey: Kyle Hughes, “Hoosick Falls Residents Urge Action by Lawmakers,” The Record, June 15, 2016.
“That article ran”: Jeff McMenemy, “Amico Led Fight on Pease Water Contamination,” Seacoastonline.com, December 27, 2015.
“All of us are guinea pigs”: Corinne Roels, Briana Smith, and Adrienne St. Clair, “Military Bases’ Contamination Will Affect Water for Generations,” News21.com, August 14, 2017.
Facebook post: https://www.facebook.com/ErinBrockovichOfficial/posts/10155910934330494.
10. TAKING BACK THE EPA & FLORIDA’S SHORELINES
“It’s not wrong for Americans”: Robison Meyer, “Congress and Trump Won’t ‘Terminate the EPA,’ ” The Atlantic, February 16, 2017.
“little tidbits”: Brady Dennis, “Trump Budget Seeks 23 Percent Cut at EPA, Eliminating Dozens of Programs,” The Washington Post, February 12, 2018.
eliminate significant regional water quality programs: Melany Rochester, “Trump Proposes Lowest EPA Budget in 40 Years,” Food & Water Watch, June 19, 2017.
proposed to significantly cut: “America First: A Budget Blueprint to Make America Great Again,” Office of Management and Budget, fiscal year 2018.
cost an estimated $1 million: “Initial Report to Congress on the EPA’s Capacity to Implement Certain Provisions of the Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act,” Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention, U.S. EPA, January 2017.
“The Trump administration currently”: Christopher Sellers et al.,“The EPA Under Siege,” the Environmental Data & Governance Initiative (EDGI).
dropped 69 percent: Amanda Little, “A Look Back at Reagan’s Environmental Record, Grist, June 11, 2004.
the doctrine of Chevron deference: Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. NRDC, 467 U.S. 837 (1984).
The bill introduces more than fifty: Lisa Lambert, “Senate Tees Up ‘Accountability Act’ as Regulation Fight Intensifies,” Reuters, May 17, 2017.
The Trump administration filed: “Civil Penalties Against Polluters Drop by Half During First Year of Trump Administration,” Environmental Integrity Project, February 15, 2018.
said in a statement: Ibid.
very well known set of tactics: “The Disinformation Playbook,” Center for Science and Democracy, Union of Concerned Citizens.
new cases of mesothelioma: “Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention for Malignant Mesothelioma,” American Cancer Society.
he sued the EPA: “Scott Pruitt’s Web of Fundraising and Lawsuits,” EDF Action.
his secret schedule for private meetings: Justin Wise, “Whistleblower Says Pruitt Kept Secret Calendar to Hide Meetings with Industry Reps: Report,” The Hill, July 3, 2018.
He terminated half of the advisors: Rafi Letzter, “The EPA Just Kicked Half the Scientists Off a Key Board—and May Replace Them with Fossil Fuel Industry Insiders,” Business Insider, May 8, 2017.
in the EPA Journal: Gaylord Nelson, “Earth Day ’70: What It Meant,” EPA Journal, April 1980.
The EPA has also proposed: Vehicle Emissions California Waivers and Authorizations, U.S. EPA.
“For Trump to now destroy”: Marissa Papanek, “Gov. Brown Calls Trump Initiative to Roll Back Clean Car Standard ‘Reckless Scheme,’ ” KRCR News, August 2, 2018.
According to the EPA’s own studies: Regulations for Emissions from Vehicles and Engines, “Draft Technical Assessment Report (TAR),” U.S. EPA.
a 2017 report: “Irreplaceable: Why States Can’t and Won’t Make Up for Inadequate Federal Enforcement of Environmental Laws,” Institute for Policy Integrity, New York University School of Law, September 2017.
The report discloses: Robert Esworthy, “Federal Pollution Control Laws: How Are They Enforced?” Congressional Research Service, October 7, 2014.
Hundreds of tons: Greg Allen, “Tons of Dead Fish Washing Ashore on Florida Beaches,” NPR, August 31, 2018.
One man became ill: Nestor Montoya, “Fort Myers Beach Clams Send Man to Hospital,” WBBH/WZVN (Waterman Broadcasting), August 1, 2018.
more than eighty-six people sought treatment: Tyler Treadway, “Blue-Green Algae Bloom in St. Lucie River 10 Times Too Toxic to Touch, DEP Tests Show,” TC Palm, August 9, 2018.
It’s a recurring harmful algal bloom (HAB): R. H. Pierce and M. S. Henry, “Harmful Algal Toxins of the Florida Red Tide (Karenia brevis): Natural Chemical Stressors in South Florida Coastal Ecosystems,” Ecotoxicology, October 2008.
Scientists believe: Ibid.
according to the National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS): “Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act,” National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS).
The EPA says: “Nutrient Pollution, Harmful Algal Blooms,” U.S. EPA.
Other contributors: Shahram Missaghi and Marte Kitson, “HABs Explained: What, How and What Now?” University of Minnesota Water Resources Center.
according to the U.S. Geological Survey: “The Science of Harmful Algal Blooms,” USGS, October 24, 2016.
it’s the Everglades: “About the Florida Everglades,” Florida Museum of Natural History.
Michael Grunwald writes: Michael Grunwald, The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise (New York: Simon & Schuster, October 31, 2006).
“Hurricanes and major storm events”: Florida Waterkeepers Position Statement on Hurricane Irma.
a statement on their website: Captains for Clean Water website, https://captainsforcleanwater.org.
Tourism: “Florida Quick Facts,” State of Florida website, 2018.
“This is not the Florida”: Jennifer Gray, “Green Slime Oozes into Florida’s Primary Elections,” CNN, August 28, 2018.
Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP): “Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP),” National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.
“This is a man-made”: Greg Allen, “ ‘A Government-Sponsored Disaster’: Florida Asks for Federal Help with Toxic Algae,” NPR, July 9, 2016.
Mark Perry: Ibid.
a 2008 FDEP report: “Integrated Water Quality Assessment for Florida: 2008,” Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP), October 2008.
“failed to perform”: United States District Court, Northern District of Florida Tallahassee Division, Case No. 4:08-cv-00324-RH-WCS.
The letter: Julie Hauserman, “Yes, This Really Is Rick Scott, Adam Putnam and Pam Bondi’s Fault,” The Phoenix, August 3, 2018.
a high-powered PR firm: Ibid.
state leaders wrote in the letter: Bill Kaczor, “Scott Asks EPA to Delay Fla. Water Pollution Rules,” CNBC, November 12, 2010.
The FDEP: Letter from U.S. EPA to Herschel T. Vinyard Jr., Secretary Florida Department of Environmental Protection, June 13, 2011.
letting the state manage: “EPA, Florida Reach Agreement on Reducing Water Pollution,” Southeast Farm Press, March 25, 2013.
In 2011, Scott slashed: Dara Kam, “After $700M in Water District Cuts, Florida Governor Wants $2.4M More,” Palm Beach Post, December 6, 2011.
That same year: Ibid.
“Since 2011, when Scott”: Dave Conway, “Dead in the Water,” Florida Sportsman, August 22, 2018.
“President Trump’s executive order”: Brady Dennis and Juliet Eilperin, “Trump Signs Order at the EPA to Dismantle Environmental Protections,” The Washington Post, March 28, 2017.
The EPA has studied: “Cleaning Up Power Plant Water Pollution,” Earth Justice.
“Thirsty energy sources”: Andrew Maddocks, Robert Samuel Young, and Paul Reig, “The Clean Power Plan: What’s Water Got to Do with It?” World Resources Institute, September 8, 2015.
The researchers used data: Bryan C. Williamson, “Do Environmental Regulations Really Work?” The Regulatory Review, November 24, 2016; Joseph S. Shapiro and Reed Walker, “Why Is Pollution from U.S. Manufacturing Declining? The Roles of Environmental Regulation, Productivity, and Trade,” National Bureau of Economic Research, June 2018.
One study: Eli Berman and Linda T. M. Bui, “Environmental Regulation and Labor Demand: Evidence from the South Coast Air Basin,” Journal of Public Economics, October 2, 1999.
in his 2013 paper: W. Reed Walker, “The Transitional Costs of Sectoral Reallocation: Evidence from the Clean Air Act and the Workforce,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 128, no. 4 (November 1, 2013).
In 2018, our country experienced: “2018 Was the Hottest Year on Record for the Globe,” NOAA press release, February 6, 2019.
In Sarasota County: Zac Anderson, “Red Tide Caused Worst Sarasota Hotel Occupancy Dip Since 9/11,” Sarasota Herald-Tribune, January 28, 2019.
To date, the EPA has issued: “EPA Receives Record Number of Letters of Interest for WIFIA Water Infrastructure Loans,” U.S. EPA press release, August 16, 2018.
lobbying spending totaled $1.45 billion: “Lobbying Database,” Center for Responsive Politics, based on data from the Senate Office of Public Records on September 10, 2018.
11. DAY ZERO
As one writer: Aryn Baker, “What It’s Like to Live Through Cape Town’s Massive Water Crisis,” Time, February 2018.
Anthony Turton: Craig Welch, “How Cape Town Is Coping with Its Worst Drought on Record,” National Geographic, March 5, 2018.
Consider the charred wreckage: Andrew Sheeler, “These Three 2018 California Wildfires Caused More Than $9 Billion in Damage,” Sacramento Bee, December 12, 2018.
2018 was the fourth hottest year on record: Christopher Joyce, “2018 Was Earth’s Fourth-Hottest Year on Record, Scientists Say,” NPR, February 6, 2019.
journalist David Wallace-Wells explains: David Wallace-Wells, “UN Says Climate Genocide Is Coming. It’s Actually Worse Than That,” New York, October 10, 2018.
As Hans-Otto Pörtner: “Special Climate Report: 1.5°C Is Possible But Requires Unprecedented and Urgent Action,” UN press release, October 8, 2018.
said Panmao Zhai: Ibid.
the report’s authors found: IPCC Special Report, “Global Warming of 1.5 °C,” chapter 3, p. 177, October 2018.
we can expect: Ibid.
“Safety nets”: Alleen Brown, “Climate Change Refugees Share Stories of Escaping Wildfires, Floods, and Droughts,” The Intercept, December 29, 2018.
The number and scale of droughts: IPCC Special Report, “Global Warming of 1.5 °C,” chapter 3, p. 178, October 2018.
As The New York Times reported: Coral Davenport and Kendra Pierre-Louis, “U.S. Climate Report Warns of Damaged Environment and Shrinking Economy,” The New York Times, November 23, 2108.
His administration also directed scientists: Scott K. Johnson, “US Tries to Bury Report on Climate Change’s Dire Health, Economic Impacts,” Ars Technica, November 26, 2018.
Trump told reporters: Timothy Cama, “Trump on Dire Warnings in Climate Change Report: ‘I Don’t Believe It,’ ” The Hill, November 26, 2018.
“There is a bizarre contrast”: Coral Davenport and Kendra Pierre-Louis, “U.S. Climate Report Warns of Damaged Environment and Shrinking Economy,” The New York Times, November 23, 2108.
“More frequent and intense”: “Fourth National Climate Assessment,” U.S. Global Change Research Program, Volume 2, November 2018.
the report is downright bracing: “Fourth National Climate Assessment,” U.S. Global Change Research Program, Volume 2, Section 5, November 2018.
Estimates show: “2017 Infrastructure Report Card,” American Society of Civil Engineers.
“Water systems face considerable risk”: “Fourth National Climate Assessment,” U.S. Global Change Research Program, chapter 3, “Water,” November 2018.
“Across the Nation,” the report finds: Ibid.
But, reports Bloomberg Businessweek: Christopher Flavelle, “Miami Will Be Underwater Soon. Its Drinking Water Could Go First,” Bloomberg Businessweek, August 29, 2018.
Soon the dishwasher and laundry machine: Noah Gallagher Shannon, “The Water Wars of Arizona,” The New York Times Magazine, July 19, 2018.
NASA scientists found: Ibid.
a team of researchers: Seth Wynes and Kimberly A. Nicholas, “The Climate Mitigation Gap: Education and Government Recommendations Miss the Most Effective Individual Actions,” Environmental Research Letters, July 12, 2017.
A study published in February: P. C. D. Milly and K. A. Dunne, “Colorado River Flow Dwindles as Warming-Driven Loss of Reflective Snow Energizes Evaporation,” Science, March 13, 2020.
In 2015, researchers called: “Reservoir Evaporation a Big Challenge for Water Managers in West,” University of Colorado Press Release, Dec. 28, 2015.
I even have a study: “Lake Powell Evaporation,” Upper Colorado Regional Office, Salt Lake City, Utah, August 1986. www.riversimulator.org
12. TIME TO ACT!
water shortages: Ellie Kincaid, “California Isn’t the Only State with Water Problems,” Business Insider, April 21, 2015.
More than 60 million Americans: Agnel Philip, Elizabeth Sims, Jordan Houston, and Rachel Konieczny, “Millions Consumed Potentially Unsafe Water in the Last 10 Years,” News21.com, August 14, 2017.
four hundred coal-fired power plants: “Coal Has an Enormous Environmental Footprint,” Environmental Integrity Project.
While the EPA did identify: David Andrews, “Report: Up to 110 Million Americans Could Have PFAS-Contaminated Drinking Water,” Environmental Working Group, May 22, 2018.
No more mayors: Sara Ganim and Linh Tran, “How Tap Water Became Toxic in Flint, Michigan,” CNN, January, 19, 2016.
“Perhaps, what is needed”: T. Christian Miller, “The Dig: Investigating the Safety of the Water You Drink,” ProPublica, June 28, 2016.
Text messages: “Text Messaging for Cities and Municipalities,” EZ Texting, https://www.eztexting.com/sms-municipalities.
a nationwide survey: “Public Willing to Pay to Improve Water Quality, MU Research Finds,” University of Missouri press release, March 26, 2018.
certified B Corporations: Certified B Corporation website, https://bcorporation.net.
Bottled water outsold soda: E. J. Schultz, “There’s a Clear Winner in Beverages: Bottled Water Tops Soda,” Ad Age, March 9, 2017.
“When Perrier first entered”: “Bottled Water Becomes Number-One Beverage in the U.S., Data from Beverage Marketing Corporation Show,” Beverage Marketing Corporation press release, March 9, 2017.
Today, Americans spend: Mallory Sofastaii, “Americans Spend $16 Billion a Year on Bottled Water,” WMAR-2 News, October 10, 2017.
which the EPA defines: “Water Health Series: Bottled Water Basics,” U.S. EPA, September 2005.
Each bottle of water you buy: G. E. Miller, “The TRUE Cost of Bottled Water Vs. Tap Water (& Comparative Purity & Taste Test Results),” 20 Something Finance, April 29, 2018.
Many of those bottles: Wenonah Hauter, “Bottled Water, Brought to You by Fracking?” AlterNet, March 14, 2018.
Plus, plastic manufacturing plants: Elizabeth Glazner, “The Irony of One Polluter’s Bottled Water Proffer,” Plastic Pollution Coalition, April 15, 2016.
free bottled water stations: Ron Fonger, “State Spending on Bottled Water in Flint Averaging $22,000 a Day,” MLive.com, March 12, 2018.
in a May 2018 campaign email: Sharon Lerner, “Toxic Drinking Water Becomes Top Campaign Issue for Midterm Candidates Across the U.S.,” The Intercept, June 4, 2018.
The forty-seven-year-old did not win: Melissa Nann Burke, “Bergman Defeats Morgan in 1st House District,” Detroit Free Press, November 7, 2018.
she told a local news site: Elisabeth Almekinder, “A Local Woman Doctor in the U.S. House Could Make History,” Politics North Carolina, January 2, 2018.
in a concession message: Dr. Kyle Horton for Congress Facebook page, November 7, 2018, https://www.facebook.com/drkyle4congress.
The state is now regularly submitting: Elisabeth Almekinder, “A Local Woman Doctor in the U.S. House Could Make History,” Politics North Carolina, January 2, 2018.
live below the federal poverty level: Julie Mack, “Flint Is Nation’s Poorest City, Based on Latest Census Data,” MLive.com, September 19, 2017.
according to a 2016 study: Mary B. Collins, Ian Munoz, and Joseph JaJa, “Linking ‘Toxic Outliers’ to Environmental Justice Communities,” IOP Science, January 26, 2016.
Cancer Alley: Tracey Ross and Danyelle Solomon, “Flint Isn’t the Only Place with Racism in the Water,” The Nation, February 9, 2016.
A 2015 study: Judy Woodruff and William Brangham, “New Science Shows Gulf Spill is Still Killing Dolphins,” PBS NewsHour, May 20, 2015.